ALARM WATCH
A watch provided with a movement capable of releasing an acoustic
sound at the time set. A second crown is dedicated to the winding,
setting and release of the striking-work; an additional center
hand indicates the time set. The section of the movement dedicated
to the alarm device is made up by a series of wheels linked with
the barrel, an escapement and a hammer (s.) striking a gong (s.)
or bell (s.). Works much like a normal alarm clock.
ANALOG or ANALOGUE
A watch displaying time indications by means of hands.
ANTIMAGNETIC
Said of a watch whose movement is not influenced by electromagnetic
fields that could cause two or more windings of the balance-spring
to stick to each other, consequently accelerating the rate of
the watch. This effect is obtained by adopting metal alloys (e.g.
Nivarox) resisting magnetization.
ANTIREFLECTION, ANTIREFLECTIVE
Superficial glass treatment assuring the dispersion of reflected
light. Better results are obtained if both sides are treated,
but in order to avoid scratches on the upper layer, the treatment
of the inner surface is preferred.
ARBOR
Bearing element of a gear (s.) or balance, whose ends—called
pivots (s.)—run in jewel (s.) holes or brass bushings.
AUTOMATIC
A watch whose mechanical movement (s.) is wound automatically.
A rotor makes short oscillations due to the movements of the wrist.
Through a series of gears, oscillations transmit motion to the
barrel (s.), thus winding the mainspring progressively.
AUTOMATON
Figures, placed on the dial or case of watches, provided with
parts of the body or other elements moving at the same time as
the sonnerie (s.) strikes. The moving parts are linked, through
an aperture on the dial or caseback, with the sonnerie hammers
(s.) striking a gong.
BALANCE
Oscillating device that, together with the balance spring (s.),
makes up the movement’s heart inasmuch as its oscillations
determine the frequency of its functioning and precision.
BALANCE SPRING
Component of the regulating organ (s.) that, together with the
balance (s.), determines the movement’s precision. The material
used is mostly a steel alloy (e.g. Nivarox, s.), an extremely
stable metal compound. In order to prevent the system’s
center of gravity from continuous shifts, hence differences in
rate due to the watch’s position, some modifications were
adopted. These modifications included Breguet’s overcoil
(closing the terminal part of the spring partly on itself, so
as to assure an almost perfect centering) and Philips curve (helping
to eliminate the lateral pressure of the balance-staff pivots
against their bearings). Today, thanks to the quality of materials,
it is possible to assure an excellent precision of movement working
even with a flat spring.
BARREL
Component of the movement containing the mainspring (s.), whose
toothed rim meshes with the pinion of the first gear of the train
(s.). Due to the fact that the whole—made up of barrel and
mainspring—transmits the motive force, it is also considered
to be the very motor. Inside the barrel, the mainspring is wound
around an arbor (s.) turned by the winding crown or, in the case
of automatic movements, also by the gear powered by the rotor
(s.).
BEVELING
Chamfering of edges of levers, bridges and other elements of a
movement by 45, a treatment typically found in high-grade
movements.
BEZEL
Top part of case (s.), sometimes holds the crystal. It may be
integrated with the case middle (s.) or a separate element. It
is snapped or screwed on to the middle.
BRACELET
A metal band attached to the case. It is called integral if there
is no apparent discontinuity between case and bracelet and the
profile of attachments is similar to the first link.
BRIDGE
Structural metal element of a movement (s.)—sometimes called
cock or bar—supporting the wheel train (s.), balance (s.),
escapement (s.) and barrel (s.). Each bridge is fastened to the
plate (s.) by means of screws and locked in a specific position
by pins. In high-quality movements the sight surface is finished
with various types of decoration.
BRUSHED, BRUSHING
Topical finishing giving metals a line finish, a clean and uniform
look.
CABOCHON
Any kind of precious stone, such as sapphire, ruby or emerald,
uncut and only polished, generally of a half-spherical shape,
mainly used as an ornament of the winding crown (s.) or certain
elements of the case.
CALENDAR, ANNUAL
An intermediate complication between a simple calendar and a perpetual
calendar. This feature displays all the months with 30 or 31 days
correctly, but needs a manual correction at the end of February.
Generally, date, day of the week and month, or only day and month
are displayed on the dial.
CALENDAR, FULL
Displaying date, day of the week and month on the dial, but needing
a manual correction at the end of a month with less than 31 days.
It is often combined with the moonphase (s).
CALENDAR, PERPETUAL
This is the most complex horology complication related to the
calendar feature, as it indicates the date, day, month and leap
year and does not need manual corrections until the year 2100
(when the leap year will be ignored).
CALIBER
Originally it indicated only the size of a movement (s.), but
now this indication defines a specific movement type and shape
(e.g. round caliber) and combines it with the constructor’s
name and identification number. Therefore the caliber identifies
the movement.
CARRIAGE or TOURBILLON CARRIAGE
Rotating frame of a tourbillon (s.) device, carrying the balance
and escapement (s.). This structural element is essential for
a perfect balance of the whole system and its stability, in spite
of its reduced weight. As today’s tourbillon carriages make
a rotation per minute, errors of rate in the vertical position
are eliminated. Because of the widespread use of transparent dials,
carriages became elements of aesthetic attractiveness.
CASE
Container housing and protecting the movement (s.), usually made
up of three parts: middle, bezel, and back.
CENTER SECOND HAND,
s. Sweep second hand.
CHAMPLEVÉ
Hand-made treatment of the dial or case surface. The pattern is
obtained by hollowing a metal sheet with a graver and subsequently
filling the hollows with enamel.
CHRONOGRAPH
A watch that includes a built-in stopwatch function, i.e. a timer
that can be started and stopped to time an event. There are many
variations of the chronograph.
CHRONOMETER
A high-precision watch. According to the Swiss law, a manufacture
may put the word “chronometer” on a model only after
each individual piece has passed a series of tests and obtained
a running bulletin and a chronometer certificate by an acknowledged
Swiss control authority, such as the COSC (s.).
CIRCULAR GRAINING
Superficial decoration applied to bridges, rotors and pillar-plates
in the shape of numerous slightly superposed small grains, obtained
by using a plain cutter and abrasives. Also called Pearlage or
Pearling.
CLOISONNÉ
A kind of enamel work— mainly used for the decoration of
dials—in which the outlines of the drawing are formed by
thin metal wires. The colored enamel fills the hollows formed
in this way. After oven firing, the surface is smoothed until
the gold threads appear again.
CLOUS DE PARIS
Decoration of metal parts characterized by numerous small pyramids.
COCK, s. Bridge.
COLIMAÇONNAGE,
s. Snailing.
COLUMN-WHEEL
Part of chronograph movements, governing the functions of various
levers and parts of the chronograph operation, in the shape of
a small-toothed steel cylinder. It is controlled by pushers through
levers that hold and release it. It is a very precise and usually
preferred type of chronograph operation.
COMPLICATION
Additional function with respect to the manual-winding basic movement
for the display of hours, minutes and seconds. Today, certain
features, such as automatic winding or date, are taken for granted,
although they should be defined as complications. The main complications
are moonphase (s.), power reserve (s.), GMT (s.), and full calendar
(s.). Further functions are performed by the so-called great complications,
such as split-second (s.) chronograph, perpetual calendar (s.),
tourbilon (s.) device, and minute repeater (s.).
CORRECTOR
Pusher (s.) positioned on the case side that is normally actuated
by a special tool for the quick setting of different indications,
such as date, GMT (s.), full or perpetual calendar (s.).
COSC
Abbreviation of “Contrôle Officiel Suisse des Chronomètres,”
the most important Swiss institution responsible for the functioning
and precision tests of movements of chronometers (s.). Tests are
performed on each individual watch at different temperatures and
in different positions before a functioning bulletin and a chronometer
certificate are issued, for which a maximum gap of -4/+4 seconds
per day is tolerated.
CÔTES CIRCULAIRES
Decoration of rotors and bridges of movements, whose pattern consists
of a series of concentric ribs.
CÔTES DE GENÈVE
Decoration applied mainly to high-quality movements, appearing
as a series of parallel ribs, realized by repeated cuts of a cutter
leaving thin stripes.
COUNTER
Additional hand on a chronograph (s.), indicating the time elapsed
since the beginning of the measuring. On modern watches the second
counter is placed at the center, while minute and hour counters
have off-center hands in special zones (s.), also called subdials.
CROWN
Usually positioned on the case middle (s.) and allows winding,
hand setting and often date or GMT hand setting. As it is linked
to the movement through the winding stem (s.) passing through
a hole in the case. For waterproofing purposes, simple gaskets
are used in water-resistant watches, while diving watches adopt
screwing systems (screw-down crowns).
DIAL
Face of a watch, on which time and further functions are displayed
by markers (s.), hands (s.), discs or through windows (s.). Normally
it is made of a brass—sometimes silver or gold.
DIGITAL
Said of watches whose indications are displayed mostly inside
an aperture or window (s.) on the dial.
ENDSTONE
Undrilled jewel, placed on the balance jewel with the tip of the
balance-staff pivot resting against its flat surface, to reduce
pivot friction. Sometimes used also for pallet staffs and escape
wheels.
ENGINE-TURNED, s.
Guilloché.
EQUATION OF TIME
Indication of the difference, expressed in minutes, between conventional
mean time and real solar time. This difference varies from -16
to +16 seconds between one day and the other.
ESCAPEMENT
Positioned between the train (s.) and the balance wheel and governing
the rotation speed of the wheel-train wheels. In today’s
horology the most widespread escapement type is the lever escapement.
In the past, numerous types of escapements were realized, such
as: verge, cylinder, pin-pallet, detent and duplex escapements.
Recently, George Daniels developed a so-called “coaxial”
escapement.
FLINQUÉ
Engraving on the dial or case of a watch, covered with an enamel
layer.
FLUTED
Said of surfaces worked with thin parallel grooves, mostly on
dials or case bezels.
FLY-BACK
Feature combined with chronograph (s.) functions, that allows
a new measurement starting from zero (and interrupting a measuring
already under way) by pressing down a single pusher, i.e. without
stopping, zeroing and restarting the whole mechanism. Originally,
this function was developed to meet the needs of air forces.
FOLD-OVER CLASP
Hinged and jointed element, normally of the same material as the
one used for the case. It allows easy fastening of the bracelet
on the wrist. Often provided with a snap-in
locking device, sometimes with an additional clip or push-piece.
FREQUENCY, s. Vibration
Generally defined as the number of cycles per time unit; in horology
it is the number of oscillations of a balance every two seconds
or of its vibrations per second. For practical purposes, frequency
is expressed in vibrations per hour (vph).
GENEVA SEAL, s. Poinçon
de Genève.
GLUCYDUR
Bronze and beryllium alloy used for high-quality balances (s.).
This alloy assures high elasticity and hardness values; it is
non-magnetic, rustproof and has a very reduced dilatation coefficient,
which makes the balance very stable and assures high accuracy
of the movement.
GMT
Abbreviation for Greenwich Mean Time. As a feature of watches,
it means that two or more time zones are displayed. In this case,
the second time may be read from a hand making a full rotation
in a 24-hour ring (thereby also indicating whether it is a.m.
or p.m. in that zone).
GONG
Harmonic flattened bell in a steel alloy, generally positioned
along the circumference of the movement and struck by hammers
(s.) to indicate time by sounds. Size and thickness determine
the resulting note and tone. In watches provided with minute-repeaters
(s.), there are often two gongs and the hammers strike one note
to indicate hours, both notes together to indicate quarters and
the other note for the remaining minutes. In more complex models,
equipped also with en-passant sonnerie (s.) devices, there may
be up to four gongs producing different notes and playing even
simple melodies (such as the chime of London’s Big Ben).
GUILLOCHé
Decoration of dials, rotors or case parts consisting of patterns
made by hand or engine-turned. By the thin pattern of the resulting
engravings—consisting of crossing or interlaced lines—it
is possible to realize even complex drawings. Dials and rotors
decorated in this way are generally in gold or in solid silver.
HAMMER
Steel or brass element used in movements provided with a repeater
or alarm sonnerie (s.). It strikes a gong (s.) or bell (s).
HAND
Indicator for the analogue visualization of hours, minutes and
seconds as well as other functions. Normally made of brass (rhodium-plated,
gilded or treated otherwise), but also steel or gold. Hands are
available in different shapes and take part in the aesthetic result
of the whole watch.
HEART-PIECE
Heart-shaped cam (s.) generally used to realign the hands of chronograph
counters.
HELIUM VALVE
Valve inserted in the case of some professional diving watches
to discharge the helium contained in the air mixture inhaled by
divers.
HEXALITE
An artificial glass made of a plastic resin.
INCABLOC, s. Shockproof.
JEWEL
Precious stone used in movements as a bearing surface. Generally
speaking, the steel pivots (s.) of wheels in movements turn inside
synthetic jewels (mostly rubies) lubricated with a drop of oil.
The jewel’s hardness reduces wear to a minimum even over
long periods of time (50 to 100 years). The quality of watches
is determined mainly by the shape and finishing of jewels rather
than by their number (the most refined jewels have rounded holes
and walls to greatly reduce the contact between pivot and stone).
JUMPING HOUR
Feature concerning the digital display of time in a window. The
indication changes almost instantaneously at every hour.
LINE
Ancient French measuring unit maintained in horology to indicate
the diameter of a movement (s.). A line (expressed by the symbol
‘’’) equals 2.255mm. Lines are not divided into
decimals; therefore, to indicate measures inferior to the unit,
fractions are used (e.g. movements of 13’’’3/4
or 10’’’1/2).
LUBRICATION
To reduce friction caused by the running of wheels and other parts.
There are points to be lubricated with specific low-density oils
such as the pivots (s.) turning inside jewels (s.), the sliding
areas between levers, and the spring inside the barrel (requiring
a special grease), as well as numerous other parts of a movement.
LUG
Double extension of the case middle (s.) by which a strap or bracelet
is attached. Normally, straps and bracelets are attached with
removable spring bars.
LUMINESCENT
Said of materials applied on markers (s.) and/or hands (s.), emitting
the luminous energy previously absorbed as electromagnetic light
rays. Tritium is no longer used and was replaced by other substances
having the same emitting powers, but with virtually zero radioactivity,
such as Super-LumiNova and Lumibrite.
MAINSPRING
This and the barrel (s.) make up the driving element of a movement
(s.). It stores and transmits the power force needed for its functioning.
MANUAL
A mechanical movement (v.) in which winding is performed by hand.
The motion transmitted from the user’s fingers to the crown
is forwarded to the movement through the winding stem (s.), from
this to the barrel (s.) through a series of gears (s.) and finally
to the mainspring (s.).
MARKERS
Elements printed or applied on the dial, sometimes they are luminescent
(s.), used as reference points for the hands to indicate hours
and fifteen- or five-minute intervals.
MICROMETER SCREW
Element positioned on the regulator, allowing to shift it by minimal
and perfectly gauged ranges so as to obtain accurate regulations
of the movement.
MICRO-ROTOR, s. Rotor.
MINUTE REPEATER,
s. Repeater.
MODULE
Self-contained mechanism, independent of the basic caliber (s.),
added to the movement (s.) to make an additional function available:
chronograph (s.), power reserve (s.), GMT (s.), perpetual or full
calendar (s).
MOONPHASE
A function available in many watches, usually combined with calendar-related
features. The moonphase disc advances one tooth every 24 hours.
Normally, this wheel has 59 teeth and assures an almost perfect
synchronization with the lunation period, i.e. 29.53 days (in
fact, the disc shows the moonphases twice during a single revolution).
However, the difference of 0.03 days, i.e. 44 minutes each month,
implies the need for a manual adjustment every two and a half
years to recover one day lost with respect to the real state of
moonphase. In some rare case, the transmission ratio between the
gears controlling the moonphase are calculated with extreme accuracy
so as to require manual correction only once in 100 years.
MOVEMENT
The entire mechanism of a watch. Movements are divided into two
great families: quartz and mechanical; the latter are available
with manual (s.) or automatic (s.) winding devices.
NIVAROX
Trade name (from the producer’s name) of a steel alloy,
resisting magnetization, used for modern self-compensating balance
springs (s.). The quality level of this material is indicated
by the numeral following the name in decreasing value from 1 to
5.
OSCILLATION
Complete oscillation or rotation movement of the balance (s.),
formed by two vibrations (s.).
PALLETS
Device of the escapement (s.) transmitting part of the motive
force to the balance (s.), in order to maintain the amplitude
of oscillations unchanged by freeing a tooth of the escape wheel
at one time.
PILLAR-PLATE or MAIN PLATE
Supporting element of bridges (s.) and other parts of a movement
(s).
PINION
Combines with a wheel and an arbor (s.) to form a gear (s.). A
pinion has less teeth than a wheel and transmits motive force
to a wheel. Pinion teeth (normally 6 to 14) are highly polished
to reduce friction to a minimum.
PIVOT
End of an arbor (s.) turning on a jewel (s.) support. As their
shape and size can influence friction, the pivots of the balance-staff
are particularly thin and, hence, fragile, so they are protected
by a shockproof (s.) system.
PLATED
Said of a metal treated by a galvanizing procedure in order to
apply a slight layer of gold or another precious metal (silver,
chromium, rhodium or palladium) on a brass or steel base.
PLEXIGLAS
A synthetic resin used for watch crystal.
POINÇON DE GENÈVE
Distinction assigned by the Canton of Geneva to movements produced
by watchmaker firms of the Region and complying with all the standards
of high horology with respect to craftsmanship, small-scale production,
working quality, accurate assembly and setting. The Geneva Seal
is engraved on at least one bridge and shows the Canton’s
symbol, i.e. a two-field shield with an eagle and a key respectively
in each field.
POWER RESERVE
Duration (in hours) of the residual functioning autonomy of a
movement after it has reached the winding peak. The duration value
is displayed by an instantaneous indicator: analog (hand on a
sector) or digital (through a window). The related mechanism is
made up of a series of gears linking the winding barrel and hand.
Recently, specific modules were introduced which may be combined
with the most popular movements.
PULSIMETER CHRONOGRAPH
The pulsimeter scale shows, at a glance, the number of pulse beats
per minute. The observer releases the chronograph hand when starting
to count the beats and stops at the 30th, the 20th or the 15th
beat according to the basis of calibration indicated on the dial.
PUSHER, PUSH-PIECE or PUSH-BUTTON
Mechanical element mounted on a case (s.) for the control of specific
functions. Generally, pushers are used in chronographs (s.), but
also with other functions.
PVD
Abbreviation of Physical Vapor Deposition, a plating process consisting
of the physical transfer of substance by bombardment of electrons.
REGULATING UNIT
Made up by balance (s.) and balance spring (s.), governing the
division of time within the mechanical movement, assuring its
regular running and accuracy. As the balance works like a pendulum,
the balance spring’s function consists of its elastic return
and starting of a new oscillation. This combined action determines
the frequency, i.e. the number of vibrations per hour, and affects
the rotation speed of the different wheels. In fact the balance,
by its oscillations, at every vibration (through the action of
the pallets), frees a tooth of the escape wheel (s. Escapement).
From this, motion is transmitted to the fourth wheel, which makes
a revolution in one minute, to the third and then the center wheel,
the latter making a full rotation in one hour. However, everything
is determined by the correct time interval of the oscillations
of the balance.
REGULATOR
Regulating the functioning of a movement by lengthening and shortening
the active section of the balance spring (s.). It is positioned
on the balance-bridge and encompasses the balance spring with
its two pins near its fixing point on the bridge itself. By shifting
the index, the pins also are moved and, by consequence, the portion
of the balance spring capable of bringing the balance back is
lengthened or shortened by its elastic force. The shorter it is,
the more reactive it tends to be and the more rapidly it brings
the balance back and makes the movement run faster. The contrary
happens when the active portion of the balance spring is lengthened.
Given today’s high frequencies of functioning, even slight
index shifts entail daily variations of minutes. Recently, even
more refined index-regulation systems were adopted (from eccentric
(s.) to micrometer screws (s.)) to limit error margins to very
few seconds per day.
REPEATER
Mechanism indicating time by acoustic sounds. Contrary to the
watches provided with en-passant sonnerie (s.) devices, that strike
the number of hours automatically, repeaters work on demand by
actuating a slide (s.) or pusher (s.) positioned on the case side.
Repeaters are normally provided with two hammers and two gongs:
one gong for the minutes and one for the hours. The quarters are
obtained by the almost simultaneous strike of both hammers. The
mechanism of the striking work is among the most complex complications.
RETROGRADE
Said of a hand (s.) that, instead of making a revolution of 360
before starting a new measurement, moves on an arc scale (generally
of 90 to 180) and at the end of its trip comes back
instantaneously. Normally, retrograde hands are used to indicate
date, day or month in perpetual calendars, but there are also
cases of retrograde hours, minutes or seconds. Unlike the case
of the classical indication over 360, the retrograde system
requires a special mechanism to be inserted into the basic movement.
ROTOR
In automatic-winding mechanical movements the rotor is the part
that, by its complete or partial revolutions and the movements
of human arm, allows winding of the mainspring (s.).
SCALE
Graduation on a measuring instrument, showing the divisions of
a whole of values, especially on a dial, bezel. The scales mostly
used in horology are related to the following measuring devices:
tachometer (s.) (indicating the average speed), telemeter (s.)
(indicating the distance of a simultaneously luminous and acoustic
source, e.g. a cannon-shot or a thunder and related lightning),
pulsometer (to calculate the total number of heartbeats per minute
by counting only a certain quantity of them). For all of these
scales, measuring starts at the beginning of the event concerned
and stops at its end; the reading refers directly to the chronograph
second hand, without requiring further calculations.
SECOND TIME-ZONE INDICATOR,
s. GMT and World Time.
SECTOR, s. Rotor.
SELF-WINDING, s. Automatic.
SHOCKPROOF or SHOCK-RESISTANT
Watches provided with shock-absorber systems (e.g. Incabloc) help
prevent damage from shocks to the balance pivots. Thanks to a
retaining spring system, it assures an elastic play of both jewels,
thus absorbing the movements of the balance-staff pivots when
the watch receives strong shocks. The return to the previous position
is due to the return effect of the spring. If such a system is
lacking, the shock forces exert an impact on the balance-staff
pivots, often causing bending or even breakage.
SKELETON, SKELETONIZED
Watches whose bridges and pillar-plates are cut out in a decorative
manner, thus revealing all the parts of the movement.
SLIDE
Part of a mechanism moving with friction on a slide-bar or guide.
SMALL SECOND
Time display in which the second hand is placed in a small subdial.
SNAILING
Decoration with a spiral pattern, mainly used on the barrel wheel
or on big-sized full wheels.
SONNERIE (EN PASSANT)
Function consisting of an acoustic sound, obtained by a striking
work made up of two hammers (s.) striking gongs (s.) at set hours,
quarter- and half-hours. Some devices can emit a chime (with three
or even four hammers and gongs). By a slide (s.) or an additional
pusher (s.) it is possible to exclude the sonnerie device and
to select a so-called grande sonnerie.
SPLIT-SECOND CHRONOGRAPH
Chronographs with split-second mechanisms are particularly useful
for timing simultaneous phenomena which begin at the same time,
but end at different times, such as sporting events in which several
competitors are taking part. In chronographs of this type, an
additional hand is superimposed on the chronograph hand. Pressure
on the pusher starts both hands, which remain superimposed as
long as the split-second mechanism is not blocked. This is achieved
when the split-second hand is stopped while the chronograph hand
continues to move. After recording, the same pusher is pressed
a second time, releasing the split-second hand, which instantly
joins the still-moving chronograph hand, synchronizing with it,
and is thus ready for another recording. Pressure on the return
pusher brings the hands back to zero simultaneously, provided
the split-second hand is not blocked. Pressure on the split pusher
releases the split-second hand, which
instantly joins the chronograph hand if the split-second hand
happens to be blocked.
STAFF or STEM, s.
Arbor.
STRIKING WORK, s.
Sonnerie and Repeater.
SUBDIAL, s. Zone.
SUPER-LUMINOVA,
s. Luminescent.
SWEEP SECOND HAND
A center second hand, i.e. a second hand mounted on the center
of the main dial.
TACHOMETER or TACHYMETER
Function measuring the speed at which the wearer runs over a given
distance. The tachometer scale is calibrated to show the speed
of a moving object, such as a vehicle, over a known distance.
The standard length on which the calibration is based is always
shown on the dial, e.g. 1,000, 200 or 100 meters, or—in
some cases—one mile. As the moving vehicle, for instance,
passes the starting-point of the measured course whose length
corresponds to that used as the basis of calibration, the observer
releases the chronograph hand and stops it as the vehicle passes
the finishing point. The figure
indicated by the hand on the tachometer scale represents the speed
in kilometers or miles per hour.
TELEMETER
By means of the telemeter scale, it is possible to measure the
distance of a phenomenon that is both visible and audible. The
chronograph hand is released at the instant the phenomenon is
seen; it is stopped when the sound is heard, and its position
on the scale shows, at a glance, the distance in kilometers or
miles separating the phenomenon from the observer.
Calibration is based upon the speed at which sound travels through
the air, viz. approximately 340 meters or 1,115 feet per second.
During a thunderstorm, the time that has elapsed between the flash
of lightning and the sound of the thunder is registered on the
chronograph scale.
TONNEAU
Particular shape of a watchcase, imitating the profile of a barrel,
i.e. with straight, shorter, horizontal sides and curved, longer,
vertical sides.
TOURBILLON
Device invented in 1801 by A. L. Breguet. This function equalizes
position errors due to changing positions of a watch and related
effects of gravity. Balance, balance spring and escapement are
housed inside a carriage (s.), also called a cage, rotating by
one revolution per minute, thus compensating for all the possible
errors over 360.
Although this device is not absolutely necessary for accuracy
purposes today, it is still appreciated as a complication of high-quality
watches.
VIBRATION
Movement of a pendulum or other oscillating bodies, limited by
two consecutive extreme positions. In an alternate (pendulum or
balance) movement, a vibration is a half of an oscillation (s.).
The number of hourly vibrations corresponds to the frequency of
a watch movement, determined by the mass and diameter of a balance
(s.) and the elastic force of the balance spring. The number of
vibrations per hour (vph) determines the breaking up of time (the
“steps” of a second hand). For instance, 18,000 vph
equals a vibration duration of 1/5 second; in the same way 21,600
vph = 1/6 second; 28,800 vph = 1/8 second; 36,000 vph = 1/10 second.
Until the 1950s, wristwatches worked mostly at a frequency of
18,000 vph; later, higher frequencies were adopted to produce
a lower percentage of irregularities to the rate. Today, the most
common frequency adopted is 28,800 vph, which assures a good precision
standard and less lubrication problems than extremely high frequencies,
such as 36,000 vph.
WATER RESISTANT or WATERPROOF
A watch whose case (s.) is designed in such a way as to resist
infiltration by water (3 atmospheres, corresponding to a conventional
depth of 30 meters; 5 atmospheres, corresponding to a conventional
depth of 50 meters.)
WHEEL
Circular element, mostly toothed, combines with an arbor (s.)
and a pinion (s.) to make up a gear (s.). Wheels are normally
made of brass, while arbors and pinions are made of steel. The
wheels between barrel (s.) and escapement (s.) make up the so-called
train (s.).
WINDING STEM
Element transmitting motion from the crown (s.) to the gears governing
manual winding and setting.
WINDOW
Aperture in the dial, that allows reading the underlying indication,
mainly the date, but also indications concerning a second zone’s
time or jumping hour (s.).
WORLD TIME
Additional feature of watches provided with a GMT (s.) function,
displaying the 24 time zones on the dial or bezel, each zone referenced
by a city name, providing instantaneous reading of the time of
any country.
ZONE
Small additional dial or indicator that may be positioned, or
placed off-center on the main dial, used for the display of various
functions (e.g. second counters).
What is Chronograph Watch?
Around 1910, the chronograph, also refered to as stopwatch,
was introduced as a wrist watch. Soon it was a very sought after
type of watch, only to gain in popularity through the years. When
the Swatch watch company started the production of affordable
and fashionable chrono's in early 1990, they sold like hot cakes,
as were the later versions. Nowadays, almost every respectable
watch company has a chonograph in its collection.
The chronograph was invented by a Frenchman, named Rieussec, back
in 1821. Literally, this was the only timepiece that bore the
name Chronograph rightly. It actually wrote on the dial with a
small pen attached to the index. The length of the arc of the
circle displayed the time that had passed. The index was fixed
while the dial turned. The Greek words chronos and graph stand
for resp. time and writing. Chronoscope would be a more accurate
name for chronographs, since there is no real "writing"
involved anymore.
In 1822, Rieussec was granted a patent for his invention.
The Real Chronograph
Chronographs are watches that can meassure time in different ways.
Besides normal timekeeping they can be used for one or more specific
time measurements. For this, the dial has several sub dials with
a scale, from which the measurements can be read. A central second
hand can be started and stopped, without interfering with the
continuous time.
According to this definition, Chrono-stop watches like the one
made by Technos are not real chronographs. The central second
hand acts like a "normal" second hand until the button
(located at "4") is pushed. The hand jumps to 12. If
the button is released, the hand will resume his normal function.
This makes the warch a stopwatch: with the button, located at
"2", the seconds hand can be stopped for a short period.
The watch will gain or loose some seconds with this resetting,
so it will no longer give the correct time. These watches don't
have subsidiary dials.
The design of the dial of chronographs depends on the number of
subsidiary dials. This can be two, three or even four. One of
them is likely to be situated on the "9" of the dial,
and shows the continuous seconds. When the chronograph is activated
by pushing the top button, the central seconds hands starts moving.
After one complete cicle is completed and the hand has returned
to "12", the minute-indicator, located at the "3",
will jump one position. With this simple type of chronograph a
period of 30 or 45 minutes can be measured.
More complicated chrono's have a subregister for total hours,
often located at 6 o'clock on the dial. This enable to take measurements
up to 12 hours. Even fairly simple chronographs have a very complicated
movement, but there is always one step further. There are chronographs
that have, beside minute and hour registers, displays for day
and dat, and moon phase indication.
The terms Chronograph and Chronometer are often used indiscriminately,
although they are two different types of watches. The term chronometer
is moore of a title a watch can "earn" after a series
of severe tests. An official Swiss institute is in charge of these
tests, which are strictly prescribed in protocols. In 1961, one
of the rules was, that a mechanical watch was not allowed to gain
more than 12 seconds or to loose more than 3 seconds in order
to receive the title. Because the quality and accuracy of wrist
watches improved, these rules needed adjustment through the years.
A chronograph can also aquire the Chronometer title, if it meets
the set standards. If so, the dial will most likely have the inscription
"officially Certified Chronometer".
Technical Innovations
The developpement of the chronograph folllowed the technical innovation
of the wrist watch very closely. When in the 1930's manufacturers
started producing waterproof watches, this know how was used in
the production of chronographs shortly after. In 1933, the firm
Universal introduced the first waterproof chronograph to the public
under the name "Colonial". And shortly after developpers
managed to protect the movement of a watch against magnetical
influences, the first anti-magnetic chronograph followed.
It was strange enough, though, that it took many years before
the technique of the self winding movement was used in the production
of chronographs. The first self winding pocket watch was invented
back in 1778 by a man named Abraham Louis Perrelet (1729-1826).
It took almost 150 years before John Harwood was granted a patent
for his self winding wrist watch in 1922.
It would take until 1969 before the first self winding chronograph
appears on the market. In that year, two automatic chronographs
were introduced on the Basel Watch Fair: the Chronomat and the
El Primero. The firms Zenith and Movado called their product "El
Primero" (The First), because it was the first in it's kind.
Their competitors Breitling, Hamilton-Büren and Heuer-Leonidas
-which, one by one, thought that the honours of being the first
was theirs- gave their new-comer the name "Chrono-matic",
a joining of "chronograph" and "automatic".
In the developpement of the calibers (base movements), both groups
sailed their own course. The Chrono-matic caliber uses a balance
wheel with 19,800 beats per hour and a micro rotor to supply the
energy for the movement. A chronograph module is placed on the
normal watch movement, and can be taken of entirely when servicing.
The El Primero has a "high beat movement", which means
that the balance wheel makes 36,000 beats per hour. This means
that the seconds are devided in tenths of a second and not in
fifths (or five-and-a-halfths) like the Chrono-matic and practically
all the other chronographs. This means that measurements with
an accuracy of 1/10s of a second can be taken. The self winding
is taken care of by a semi-circular rotor which is fixed on the
back side of the movement, and rotates over the full diameter
of the movement.
The Sporting Image
At the beginning of this century, stopwatches were used mainly
by sportsmen and the military. Professionally, they had to be
able to measure the time of certain events accurately. For them,
a chronograph was a practical choice.
Stopwatches are still indissolubly attached to sport. Nowadays,
the difference between Gold and Silver is very often a matter
of hundredths of a second. Mechanical watches can't measure this,
so quartz chonographs are used.
Today, wearing a chronograph is a matter of taste, rather than
professional. The chronograph is becoming a fashion statement.
Practical applications are still plentyful, of coarse, like the
boiling of "the perfect egg", which requires very accurate
timing. the biggest appeal of the chrono is probably the exciting
and sportive image, for it is the watch for astronauts, racing
car drivers and pilots. Professions that are known to be adventurous.
Beside those who choose functionality or image, there is a small
group of enthusiasts (collectors) that considers the movement
to be the most beautiful part of the watch. If you have ever seen
a chronograph opened up, you might know what this is about. It
is an arranged chaos, in which tiny springs, pawls and gears set
the chrono movement in motion. Every minute part has its own role
in the functioning of the whole watch.
Flight Control
So it were the military and sportsmen that used the first chronographs.
The soldiers used it to time their excersizes and operations.
And because many of these operations were carried out at night,
there was the need of an illuminated dial. Numerals and hands
were treated with a fluorescent material, Radium. Military chronographs
are recognized by the easy to read, black dial and an inscription
on the back indicating the army unit.
Military watches are quite similar, because of the regulations
and specifications they have to meet. A military chrono may be
fitted with a telemeter scale on the edge of the dial. This can
be used to determine the distance of enemy artillery or thunderstorm.
When the chrono is started at the perception of the fire and stoppped
at the explosion, the central hand will indicate the distance.
Chrono's used by sportsmen are most likely used as stopwatches.
The dial indicates the number of seconds, devided in fifths of
a second.
For different professionals like doctors, engineers, astronauts,
divers, marines and laboratory personnel, special timepieces are
made. For medical personnel, the pulsometer is developped, with
a scale to facilitate the taking of the pulse. The chrono is started
at the first pulse and stopped after 10 to 15 pulses, depending
te calibration. The central hand will then indicat ethe pulse
rate in beats per minute. Respiration frequences can be taken
in a similar fasion.
Engineers, pilots and naval officers are benefited by a chronograph
with a slide rule bezel. Especially useful at sea, where navigation
used to require lots of measuring and calculation. The best example
of a chrono of this type is the Navitimer by Breitling, a genuine
classic.
To coureurs, a stopwatch with tachometer is very useful. For example,
to measure the speed of a formula 1 race car, the time to cover
a distance of 1000 meters is measured, and the tachometer scale
automatically indicates the speed in kilometers per hour. A chrono
that made particular good appearance in the racing world is the
Rolex Cosmograph Daytona. It has a tachometer and a telemeter
scale, as well as minute and hour registration.
The Speedmaster by Omega has the honorable nickname "astronauts
watch". Since 1965 it is the official chronograph of astronauts
of NASA. On July 21st 1969, Neil Armstrong was the first human
to set foot on the Moon, wearing a Speedmaster. Since then, this
model has the inscriptions "first watch worn on the moon"
and "flight-qualified by NASA for all manned space missions"
on the back side. In 1970 the watch proved invaluable when after
a series of explosions on board of the Apollo XIII a number of
important instruments out of order. There was no contact possible
with Flight Control, and the astronauts had to calculate and time
the return into the atmosphere. An error of a few seconds could
have been fatal. Omega received the "Snoopy Award" for
the performance of the Speedmaster. Contrary to what the name
suggests, this is the hightest award issued by NASA.
Divers chrono
Divers have their own time piece as well. Basic requirement is
that the case is waterproof. That is why a divers chronograph
has round pushers, a screw on crown, and a screw back case which
is provided with rubber gasket-rings to keep water out. At a depth
of 30 meters there is hardly any daylight penetrating, so luminescent
numereals and hands on a dark dial are necessary.
The most important feature of any divers watch and an essential
part of every divers equipmentis the diving ring. This is a rotating
bezel around the dial or the crystal.It is devided in minutes
and often has a triangular fluorescent marking at 12. Before divers
take to the water, they have calculated the time they can spend
under water. The diving time depends on the depth and the amount
of oxygen taken down. When a diver has 45 minutes of air and enters
the water at 14:00 hours, the triangular marking has to be set
45 minutes later, in tis case at 9. The minutes hand has a similar
triangle as the diving ring. When both markings meet, it is time
to surface, because the air is running out.
The diving ring of a good divers watch can only turn counter clock
wise. This is a safety precaution if the diving ring is turned
by accident by bumping into a rock or something. I that it can
only result in a shorter diving time.
Some divers chronographs are fitted with an extra dial indicating
the tides. A chronograph for divers is not the best application
for this type of watch. Although the stopwatch can be used as
an extra safety precaution, the push buttons are two extra openings
in the case through which water can penetrate the inside.
Valuable
As a rule, a chronograph is quite valuable. It is more expensive
than a normal or automatic watch, due to the complexity and craftmenship
necessary for manufacturing. That is why maintainance and repair
are quite costly. Prices of "second hand" chronographs
start at about $100 and go up according to availability and complexity.
Of coarse, brand name has a great influence on the value.
Metric Time - why we have the calendar we have?
Priests in ancient Babylon divided the sky in a belt
of 12 sectors, the Zodiac. Each sector, each group of stars, indicated
the orbit of the sun, which seemed to move from constellation
to constellation. They discovered that every 30 days the moon
was full, so they divided the year in 12 x 30 = 360 days. Pretty
soon though, they discovered a shortage in days. The error of
5 days a year mounted very rapidly: a full month in 6 years. They
corrected for this by creating a 13 month year every 6th year.
The Egyptians also used a 360-day year. However, they corrected
this by adding 5 days of festivities at the end of each year.
Because a solar year is about 365 1/4 days long, and the current
division didn't match the seasons, Ptolomeus (appr. 240 BC) suggested
to add one day every 4 years. Ptolomeus got in trouble with the
priests, but 200 years later, Julius Caesar made it official.
They were getting close. The actual solar year is 365 days, 5
hours, 48 minutes and 14 seconds, slightly shorter than the Julian
calendar with an error of 3 days per 400 years.
In 1582, Pope Gregorius XIII, together with some scholars, decided
that every turn of the century that was dividable by 400 was a
leap-year, those that are not (1800, 1900, 2100), are normal years.
This leaves the difference with the actual solar year 26 seconds,
i.e. 1 day per 3323 years. We still use the Gregorian calendar.
During the Revolution, the French tried to reinforce the 12 months/
360 days - year, using a decimal timescale, adding 5 days of festivities
at the end of the year. A day consisted of 10 hours of 100 minutes.
Minutes were divided in 100 seconds. 10 days made a "week",
called a "dekade". There were 30 days in a month. The
republican calendar was not a success and lasted only from 1793
till 1805.
The Magic Number in the early calendar was 60. The zodiac was
divided in 360 days/degrees; days are divided in 2 x 12 units,
60 minutes per "unit, 60 seconds per minute.
